Ancient India is the name of the territory of several ancient states on the Hindustan peninsula.

2800-2600 BC e. Small agricultural settlements in Northwest India. Pre-Harappan cultures. The cult of the mother goddess is widespread.

2500-1600 BC e. Harappan civilization of the Bronze Age in the Indus Valley. Created, perhaps, by the Dravidians, the ancestors of most of the peoples of South India.

1500-1000 BC e. The penetration of Aryan tribes into India from the northwest.

End II-mid I millennium BC e. Several dozen states were formed in Northern India - Magadha, Koshala, Vriji, etc. At the same time, a system of varnas (caste system) was formed: brahmins (priests), rajanya (nobility), vish (common people), shudras (engaged in hard physical labor , practically slaves). It was forbidden to move from one varna to another and mixed marriages.

491-459 BC e. The reign of King Ajatashatru in the state of Magadha (modern state of Bihar) with the capital Pataliputra (modern Patia). He defeated the main enemy, the state of Koshara, as a result, Magadha became the strongest state in Northern India. After the death of Ajatashatru, the territorial expansion of Magadha was continued by his successors.

325-324 BC e. The invasion of the army of Alexander the Great. Revolt against the conquerors in 324 BC. e., as a result of which they were expelled, led by Chandragupta.

322-298 BC e. The reign of King Chandragupta I, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty in Magadha. He extended power to the whole of Northern India, annexed (305 BC) part of the territories of modern Balochistan and Afghanistan and founded the Mauryan Empire. Became the first emperor of India. Reign of Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Dynasty.

268-232 BC e. The highest flowering of the empire, which during this period occupied the territory of almost all of modern India (except for the extreme southern part of the peninsula). Under him, Buddhism became the ideological basis of the state. After the death of Ashoka, the process of disintegration of his state began.

180-72 BC e. Rule of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. The power of the kings was limited only to the middle and lower parts of the Ganges valley.

28 BC e. - the first half of the III century. n. e. Rule of the Andhra kings in Magadha. The reasons for the fall of their state are still unknown.

320-VI c. The Gupta state is the last major state of ancient India. Founded by Chandragupta I (Gupta dynasty). During the period of greatest power - the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (380-414) - included "almost all of Northern India and a number of other territories, had access to the Arabian Sea. This entire period is characterized by extreme instability of political power.

606-646 Harsha's reign in the state of Sthaneshwara in Northern India. After his death, the state collapsed, mainly due to the lack of an heir. The beginning of a long period of fragmentation and civil strife in India.

Iranian and Armenian Highlands

The Iranian Plateau is a mountainous region on the territory of the modern states of Iran (67% of the country's area), Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq and southern Turkmenistan.

Armenian - a mountainous region mainly on the territory of modern Turkey, partly in Iran, Armenia and Azerbaijan.

Urartu

Urartu is an ancient slave-owning state on the territory of the Armenian Highlands with its capital in the city of Tushpa (the shore of Lake Van, modern Turkey).

864-845 BC e. The reign of Aramu, the first ruler of the united Urartu.

825-810 BC e. The reign of King Ishpuini. It was marked by vigorous activity to strengthen the unified state.

786-764 BC e. The reign of Argishti I. The zenith of the power of the Urartian state. The gradual displacement of the Assyrians by the Urartians from the valley of the Upper Euphrates. 780-760 BC e. - Campaigns of Urartu to Assyria.

735-714 BC e. The reign of King Rusa I ended with the final defeat of Urartu by Assyria in the struggle for political hegemony in Asia Minor.

640 BC e. King Sarduri III voluntarily recognized himself as subject to Assyria.

600s BC e. Conquest of Urartu by the Medes.

Persia

558-530 BC e. The reign of Cyrus II the Great, the first king of the Achaemenid dynasty. He conquered Media, Lydia, Greek cities in Asia Minor, a significant part of Central Asia. He conquered Mesopotamia, including Babylonia, reducing it to the position of an ordinary province. The Achaemenid state he created became the largest in the world in a short time.

530-522 BC e. The reign of King Cambyses P. Conquered Egypt (525), was officially proclaimed pharaoh (founder of the XXVII dynasty).

522-486 BC e. The reign of King Darius I. Suppressed uprisings in Babylonia, Media, Elam, Egypt and Parthia. Conquered the northwestern part of India (518 BC). Failed in the Greco-Persian Wars. He carried out a number of military-political and socio-economic reforms. The heyday of the Persian Empire, its borders stretched from the Indus in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west, from Armenia in the north to the first Nile threshold in the south.

486-465 BC e. The reign of King Xerxes I. Continued attempts to create a world Persian monarchy. Military failures in Greece led him to death at the hands of the conspirators.

465-424 BC e. The reign of King Artaxerxes I Dolgoruky. Concluded with Athens the Kallia peace (449 BC), which fixed the defeat of the Persians in the Greco-Persian wars.

424-404 BC e. The reign of the Persian king Darius II. Further weakening of the state, strengthening the influence of the court nobility, palace intrigues and conspiracies, uprisings of conquered peoples.

404-358 BC e. The reign of King Artaxerxes II Mnemon. Further weakening of the state: Egypt, Cyprus, regions of Asia Minor separated from Persia.

358-338 BC e. The reign of King Artaxerxes III Och. He sought to strengthen the state, weakened under his predecessors. Suppressed the uprising (345 BC) in the city of Sidon (modern Saida, Lebanon), whose inhabitants were killed or enslaved. He fell victim to palace intrigues.

336-330 BC e. The reign of Darius III, the last king of the Achaemenid dynasty. After the defeat in the battle of Gaugamela with the troops of Alexander the Great, he fled to Baktrir, where he was killed by a local satrap.

330 BC e. Conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great.

264-651 AD e. State of the Sassanids. The reign of the Iranian Shahs from the Sassanid dynasty. Founder - Shah Ardashir I.

531-579 Reign of King Khosrow I Anushirvan of the Sassanid dynasty. He concluded a peace favorable to Persia with Byzantium (533-540), expanded the territory of his state. His fame is associated with administrative reforms (including military), land reclamation, a fair tax system, a policy of tolerance towards foreigners and Christians, and the promotion of education. Middle of the 7th century Arab conquest of Persia.

Parthia

Parthia is an ancient kingdom southeast of the Caspian Sea, inhabited by nomadic Iranian tribes. Rival of Rome in the East.

250 BC e. The arrival of the Parn tribe (Parthians) to the province of the Seleucid state (with a center in Syria) - Parthia. The leader is King Arshak I, the founder of the only dynasty of Parthia - the Arshakids.

171-138 BC e. King Mithridates I creates the Parthian Empire. First, he annexes Media to Parthia, and then extends his power to Mesopotamia, where in 141 BC. e. recognized as the Babylonian king.

127-87 BC e. The reign of King Mithridates II the Great. The expansion of the territory of the Parthian kingdom from Mesopotamia to the Indus River, the conclusion of an agreement with Rome, the annexation of Armenia.

36 BC e. The unsuccessful campaign of Mark Antony, husband of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, against the Parthians.

51-77 AD e. The reign of King Vologes I. In 62, he founded the dynasty of Armenian kings Arshakids, placing his brother Trdat on the throne of Armenia. The Arsacids ruled in Armenia until 428.

224 The death of the last Parthian king Artaban V while trying to suppress an uprising in the Iranian regions of the state. The entry of the territory of Parthia into the composition of Persia (the state of the Sassanids).

Elam. Mussel

XIII-XII centuries The heyday of the power of the ancient state of Elam in the southwestern part of the Iranian Highlands. The capital is the city of Susa (modern Shush). The power of Elam extended from the Persian Gulf in the south to the region of Media in the north.

1155 BC e. The Elamite king Kutir-Nakhkhunte II captured Babylonia (the domination of the Elamites ended after 40 years).

672 BC e. The emergence of the independent state of Media in the northwestern part of the Iranian Highlands with its capital in the city of Ektabana (modern Hamadan) after the expulsion of the Assyrians.

625-584 BC e. The reign of the Median king Cyaxares. In alliance with Babylonia, he destroyed the Assyrian state (605 BC), annexed the territories of Mana (the territory of modern Azerbaijan), Urartu and the eastern part of Asia Minor to Media.

550-549 before and. e. Persian conquest of Media.

The territory of Central Asia and Southern Siberia in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC was inhabited by Neolithic and Eneolithic agricultural and pastoral ethnic communities, largely Iranian-speaking. The southern part of this region gravitated towards the Middle Eastern civilization and was, in essence, its outskirts. As for the more northern regions (especially the steppe zone), they have been well studied by domestic archaeologists, who have discovered and explored here a great many sites and burial grounds of various archaeological cultures of the Neolithic and Eneolithic.

Since ancient times, many ethnic communities have moved along the steppe belt of Eurasia (in this way, in particular, during the Late Paleolithic, America was settled through the Bering Isthmus until it became a strait). In the Neolithic era, here, in the zone of risky farming or in conditions that did not contribute to agricultural occupations at all, Sub-Neolithic groups, mainly engaged in cattle breeding, found their niche. Initially, they were hunters, fishermen and owners of domesticated cattle grazing in the steppe. Later, around the turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC, they were replaced by nomads riding horses. It took a lot of effort to master riding, not to mention purely technical innovations (harness and saddle), as well as changes in clothing (without pants made of strong material, leather is best, you won’t go far on horseback).

Experts most often associate the spread of horse riding and the nomadic pastoralism associated with it with Iranian-speaking tribes, whose number in the 1st millennium BC. in the Central Asian and South Siberian regions, as well as in the Iranian lands proper, has increased significantly. In the southern part of the region in the middle of this millennium, two Iranian-speaking tribal groups of nomads prevailed - saki and massagets. It was in the fight against the Massagets that the Persian king of kings Cyrus II found his death from a random arrow. Nomadic tribes of Kazakhstan and Altai lived to the north of the Saks and Massagets. The Minusinsk Basin, which was part of the zone of risky agriculture, was the center of distribution of the South Siberian bronze. Further to the east, nomads absolutely prevailed, as well as - in the forest-steppe and forest zones - semi-primitive hunters and gatherers.

The conquests of Alexander the Great led to the inclusion of the southern part of Central Asia into his empire, and after the death of Alexander, into the composition of Bactria and Parthia that appeared on its ruins, which have already been discussed. This, of course, contributed to the development of the region, especially in the field of trade relations. The nomadic tribes of Central and Central Asia, including the Xiongnu (Huns) and their neighbors, including the westward migrating Yuezhi (Kushans), gradually joined the trade and cultural achievements of the Hellenistic world in the western part of the region and China in its east. After the opening of the Great Silk Road, contacts between the two centers of civilization, the Middle East and the Far East, increased dramatically, and the tribes of Central and Central Asia borrowed the achievements of world culture even more actively. Moreover, those of the tribes that lived along the trade route or not far from it developed rapidly, and in some cases turned into city-states with clear elements of fairly noticeable urbanism. This, in particular, refers to the territory of the future Chinese East Turkestan (Kashgaria), the Ferghana Valley and Khorezm.

The first major state formation in Central Asia was Kushan kingdom, which included at the turn of our era, in addition to northern India, Afghanistan and a large part of the Central Asian lands. Here cities developed with their crafts and trade, much attention was paid to irrigation work, which contributed to the fertility of arid arable lands. Art flourished, especially related to sculptures and reliefs on Buddhist themes (Gandhara style). As for the Aral Khorezm, which was a separate satrapy back in the time of the Achaemenids, it was also first included in the Kushan kingdom, but after the collapse of this kingdom it continued to develop independently. However, a noticeable state formation in the 1st millennium BC. he hasn't been yet.

Among the major states of Central Asia, there are several more late period must be attributed Turkic Khaganate. Its emergence is closely connected with the problem of the emergence of an ethnic community. Turk, which subsequently expanded. There are many stories and legends about this. But the truth ultimately boils down to the fact that in the middle of the 1st millennium, on the basis of a mixture of a number of ethnic groups and tribal In Mongolia, a new ethnic community of the Turks arose, rapidly tribalizing and creating their own state. In 551, the leader of the Turks took the title kagan and began to vigorously expand their possessions. His successors continued this policy, so that by the end of the VI century. The Turkic Khaganate turned into one of the strongest states in the region, with the power of which the Chinese empire had to reckon at the time of its highest prosperity (the Sui and Tang dynasties).

At the turn of the VI-VII centuries. The Khaganate broke up into Eastern and Western, and both of them eventually became dependent on China, and only at the turn of the 7th-8th centuries. freed from this addiction. The so-called Second Turkic Khaganate internally stronger than before. This was facilitated by useful borrowing from China, especially in the area of ​​administration. But in the middle of the 8th c. this kaganate ended its existence, having been conquered Uighurs also a Turkic-speaking people. Uyghur Khaganate existed until the 9th century, after which most of the Uighurs moved to East Turkestan, where a considerable number of them still live today.

The fragility of the first Turkic states (it should be taken into account that a considerable part of their population were nomads or semi-nomads) should be considered a natural phenomenon. The Turks did not seek to gain a foothold in any one territory. On the contrary, continuing to lead a semi-nomadic way of life, they slowly but very successfully migrated mainly towards the more fertile western territories, gradually incorporating and assimilating neighboring agricultural peoples. Already in the middle of the VI century. the Turks reached the Volga and Ural regions, waged wars with Sasanian Iran. Gradually, they firmly established themselves in the western part of Central Asia and even in the eastern part of Europe. In the east, in their ancestral home, in Central Asia, there are relatively few Turks left.

In the southern territory of Central Asia at that time, ancient Iranian-speaking ethnic communities and state formations still prevailed. Many of them became part of the Arab Caliphate or were Islamized, remaining independent. At the end of the ninth century actually separated from the disintegrating caliphate emirate of the Samanids with its capital in Bukhara became the center of attraction for the southern part of Central Asia. It included Maverannahr (regions between the Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya with the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Khojent), Khorezm and some other territories, including Iranian Khorasan. In everyday life, in addition to the official Arabic, the Dari and Farsi languages ​​began to predominate, and to a much lesser extent Turkic. Bukhara and especially Khorezm were famous for their active trade relations with various countries, including India, China and even Kievan Rus.

The end of the Samanids at the beginning of the 11th century. was associated with the onslaught of the Islamized Turks, first from Kashgaria (the state of the Karakhanids), and then the already mentioned nomadic Oghuz-Seljuks, who gradually moved west and south-west until they captured the center of the caliphate, Baghdad, and began to successfully push Byzantium . In the area of ​​the Aral Sea at that time, conditions were created for the rise of an independent Khorezm led by shahs. This state was strong for two centuries. It made the nomads of the Caspian and Aral regions dependent on itself and conducted active trade. Its capital, Urgench, was a major commercial and cultural center where Ibn Sina and Al Biruni lived and worked. Khorezm has become a natural mediator between the rich Middle Eastern lands and the nomadic world of the northern territories. Its internal structure and system of administration were typical of the advanced states of Islam. successful foreign policy allowed Khorezm in the XI century. get rid of temporary vassalage from the Seljuks. Moreover, it has led to early XIII in. under the rule of the Khorezm shahs were Bukhara, Samarkand and Herat. The country was at the zenith of its power. And it was at this time that, as mentioned, the first envoys of the warlike Mongols appeared on its borders. Genghis Khan.

Whirlwind passing at the beginning of the XIII century. through the Mongolian steppes and northern Chinese lands, on which at that time the states of the Jurchens (Jin) and Tanguts (Xi Xia) were located, Genghis Khan approached the Central Asian lands. Shah Muhammad sent him a message with a proposal to trade and divide the spheres of political influence (the ruler of the East and the ruler of the West). In response, envoys of Genghis Khan were sent to Bukhara, offering to conclude a peace treaty and consider Muhammad one of his sons. A Mongolian caravan with goods followed. Offended by the proposal of Genghis Khan, the Shah ordered the Mongols who arrived with the caravan to be destroyed. Then the Mongols opposed Khorezm and in a short time turned its flourishing cities into ruins, including Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat and Urgench. Muhammad's son Jalal-addin tried to organize resistance, but after a few years he was defeated and died. Central Asia for a long time was under the rule of the Mongol khans Genghis dynasty(mainly within the Chagatai ulus).

At the beginning of the XIV century. center Chagatayid states became a fertile region of Maverannahr. The Mongols converted to Islam and even did a lot to restore the ruined city life with its crafts and trade. In the middle of the same century, the ulus split into two khanates: Maverannahr and Mogolistan . Soon, the son of one of the beks of the Turkicized Mongol tribe advanced in Mogolistan Timur. Having put together a fighting squad, he arrived in Maverannahr and captured Samarkand, made it the capital of his possession. The semi-nomadic freemen, which formed the basis of Timur's army, demanded military campaigns and rich trophies, and in 1381, speaking out against Khorasan, Timur began his conquests.

Cruel and treacherous, leaving destruction and death behind him, mercilessly cracking down on many tens of thousands of captives and the civilian population of the occupied areas, especially cities, the lame Timur (Timur-leng, or Tamerlane) conquered all of Central Asia and a number of adjacent territories in a relatively short period of time. regions. Successful campaigns in Iran, the Golden Horde, India, the defeat of the troops of the Turkish Sultan Bayezid allowed Timur to become the ruler of a vast empire. The conquered countries and peoples were subjected to ruthless robbery, paid unbearable tribute, languished and ruined. The best craftsmen from all over the world were brought to Timur's beloved Samarkand, which, through their efforts, was quickly and richly rebuilt. Both Byzantium, which saw in him a possible counterbalance to the Ottoman Empire, and Ming China sent their embassies to Timur. The emperor of the Ming Dynasty arrogantly demanded recognition of his priority, which angered Timur, who began a campaign in China.

It is not known how everything would have ended if Timur had not died at the height of the movement towards China. The bloody internecine struggle for power of the Timurids and other contenders for it after the death of Tamerlane led to the collapse of his empire, literally torn to pieces. Samarkand fell to Timur's son Shakhrukh, who appointed his son, the grandson of Timur, the famous Ulugbek, famous, unlike his grandfather, not for wars and the destruction of people, but for his interest in the sciences. Ulugbek was a mathematician and astronomer. It was he who built an observatory in Samarkand and compiled astronomical tables.

After the assassination of Ulugbek by the conspirators, the influence of Samarkand began to decrease, and for some time the Perso-Tajik Khorasan came to the fore in the Central Asian region, where (in Herat) in the second half of the 15th century. the famous poet and thinker Navoi lived and worked. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. Turkic-Mongolian nomadic tribes of Desht-i-Kipchak (Polovtsy, Uzbeks), who lived on the territory of Kazakhstan and the southern Russian steppes, invaded the possessions of the Timurids. Their leader, Sheibani Khan, by 1507 conquered almost all of Central Asia, but not for long. In 1510, he was killed in a decisive battle with the Safavid Khan Ismail. The Sheibani state collapsed, and it was at this time that a native of Fergana, and then the ruler of Kabul, Timurid Babur managed to capture Samarkand, strengthen himself and begin his successful campaign against India.

By 1513, the Uzbeks firmly entrenched themselves in the territory of Maverannahr and settled here, gradually turning into farmers. The 16th century saw the heyday of the Uzbek state of the descendants of Sheibani, who took care of irrigation, strengthened economic ties and developed trade. Under them, cities flourished again, starting with Bukhara and Samarkand. The 16th-17th centuries passed under the sign of a new political redistribution in the region. As independent state formations stood out Bukhara and Khiva Khanate. A little later, at the beginning of the 18th century, on the territory of Maverannakhr, Khanate of Kokand under whose authority the district of Tashkent soon fell. Wars between Bukhara and Kokand in the 18th and especially in the 19th century. contributed to the strengthening of the influence of Russia here, which had long sought to strengthen its ties, primarily trade, with the rich lands of Central Asia.

The Bukhara Khanate covered most of modern Tajikistan. In the XVIII century. Bukhara was briefly conquered by the Iranian Nadir Shah. Agriculture and trade flourished in the khanate, despite the wars with Kokand. Iranian-speaking Tajiks here peacefully coexisted with Turkic-speaking Uzbeks. The Khiva Khanate was dominated by Turkmens related to the Seljuks-Oguzes. Part of the Turkmens was under the rule of Bukhara. In the 17th century Turkmens and Uzbeks were at enmity in the struggle for power in Khorezm. Proximity to Russia contributed to the strengthening of ties with it (trade went mainly through Astrakhan). The Turkmen lands and the Khiva Khanate were in the 18th and early 19th centuries. at the center of Russia's geopolitical interests in Central Asia. Various missions and expeditions were sent here. Assistance was provided when needed. Separate groups of Turkmens were given permission to resettle in the South Russian lands.

The Turkic-Mongolian tribes of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan consolidated around the 15th century. mainly in Mogolistan. The Kirghiz as a nationality were formed in the Tien Shan region. In the fight against the Dzungars Oirats(Kalmyks) they are in the XVI century. in large part they migrated to the Pamir-Alay region and later ended up as part of Kokand. More numerous Kazakhs, after the departure of the Uzbeks of Sheibani Khan to the agricultural regions, settled the territory of modern Kazakhstan, creating here Kazakh Khanate, consisting of three zhuzes- the Elder (near Semirechye), the Middle (the valleys of the Syr Darya, Ishim and Tobol) and the Younger, in the western part of the Khanate. In the 17th century on the basis of these zhuzes, independent khanates arose, each of which pursued its own policy, gravitating, depending on geopolitical interests, to either Qing China or Russia. Already at the beginning of the XVIII century. the khans of the Little Zhuz were ready to accept Russian citizenship. A little later, this example was followed by the Middle Zhuz. Senior zhuz in the middle of the 18th century. was divided between Dzungaria, soon conquered by Qing China, and Kokand. In the first half of the XIX century. many Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz preferred to migrate from Kokand and Qing China under the auspices of Russia, which by that time had built many of its fortresses on the lands of Kazakhstan, including the city of Verny (Alma-Ata). In conclusion, we note that part of the Dzungarian Kalmyks under the pressure of the Mongols, Qing China and Kazakh zhuzes in the 17th century. migrated to the lower Volga region, where they created Kalmyk Khanate, in the same century became part of Russia.

• Mogolistan, or Moghulistan, (XIV-XV centuries) is the territory of East Turkestan and Semirechye with a predominantly nomadic population. It was ruled by representatives of noble Turkic-Mongolian families. Mogul- the term used in Iran to refer to the Mongols.

Asia.

The total area of ​​Asia is 43 million km 2, the area of ​​Foreign Asia is about 27 million km 2. In latitude, Asia stretches to 93 0; in longitude, Asia Abroad extends from 53 0 N.L. up to 12 0 S The remoteness of some territories from the ocean is 1000-1500 km, which determines a clear manifestation of the sector. The variety of natural conditions is enhanced by the sharp contrasts of the relief. Asia is the highest part of the world (average height 950 m). More than 3/4 of its surface is occupied by mountains, highlands, and plateaus. Within Asia, there is the highest peak Everest (Jamalungma, Sagarmatha) and the deepest depression on land - the Dead Sea (El Ghor) -395 m. continentality. Therefore, another distinctive feature of the nature of Asia is the unusually wide development of the continental sector. Asia is characterized by a rather strong dismemberment. For islands and peninsulas, it is approximately 25%. Asia is one of the main centers of the origin of mankind, the cradle of world culture, the arena for the formation of a number of major centers of indigenous agriculture.

The history of the formation of Asia.

Asia is characterized by the greatest complexity and heterogeneity of the geostructural plan. At the base of Asia lies several platforms: Siberian (the territory of Russia), Arabian, Hindustan and Chinese. They have a Precambrian folded basement, composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks, whose age exceeds 2.6 billion years.

Unlike the European and North American Asian platforms are mobile (paraplatforms). They are characterized by active movements along deep faults, a higher hypsometric level, the predominance of erosion processes and the accumulation of continental deposits. The Chinese platform was distinguished by the greatest mobility throughout its development. In the Precambrian, the Chinese platform extended from the Pamirs to the Japanese islands in the east and the Indochina peninsula in the south. Then a single Chinese platform was divided into 2 parts - northern and southern. The northern part (or the Sinai shield) was characterized by a tendency of predominant uplift and was land for most of the geological time. In the southern part (South China Plate), subsidence prevailed and large areas were covered by sea waters. The northern part of the Chinese Platform entered the phase of continental development at the end of the Permian, and the southern part at the end of the Triassic. Important role Intense folded dislocations MZ played a role in shaping the structural plan of the Chinese platform, which led to the emergence of specific linear epiplatform folded-block structures (yanshanids) separated by relatively stable massifs, such as: Shandong-Korean, Ordos, Tarim.

In troughs where the folded basement is covered by a sedimentary cover, there are plains (Great Chinese, Song Liao). Yantanids are distributed mainly in the southern part of the Chinese platform (the Qinlin Ridge and are located to the south of its territory). The South China Plate is represented by separate massifs: Sino-Birtan, East China and Indosinian.

In the Precambrian, the Chinese platform was framed by geosynclinal basins: the Ural-Pien Shan (in the north), the Pacific (in the east), and the Mediterranean (in the south).

The first mountain-building movements took place in the Ural-Pien-Shan basin. At the end of the Permian and the beginning of the Cambrian, Baikal folding is noted here; manifested mainly in the northern part of Mongolia, adjacent to Lake Baikal. In the Lower Paleozoic, the Caledonian structures (an undivided stratum of the mountains of Northern Mongolia) join the Baikalids. At the same time, separate massifs were formed in the Mediterranean geosyncline, which then represented the islands: Asia Minor, Armenian, Iranian.

The Hercynian folding begins in the Upper Paleozoic. At this time, the Ural-Tien Shan geosyncline closes. Mountains are formed: Tien Shan, Altai, Khentei, Hangai, Greater and Lesser Khingan, Kun-Lun, Nanshan. The areas of massifs in the Mediterranean basin are increasing. As a result of the Hercynian orogeny, the Chinese platform merged with the Siberian and European ones: Laurasia was formed.

By the Mesozoic, the Chinese platform turned into a series of depressions and uplifts, alternating with each other. Thick sedimentary strata accumulated in depressions. At the end of the Jurassic-beginning of the Cretaceous in the body of the Chinese platform, mountain-building processes take place, which formed mountain systems (Yanshan folding). Its structures include: Liaoxin, Yinshan, Taihanshan, Wutaishan, Wuishan, Qinlin, Nanlin. Due to the fact that parts of the platform were involved in the process of mountain building, the Yanshanids are either one-sided horsts, or arched uplifts, or monoclinal structures. The Yangshan folding did not give an increase in land mass, because took place in the body of the Chinese platform. The tectonic movements of the Cretaceous period were accompanied by violent tectonic activity. Over a vast area from the great Khingan in the north to the southern part of East China, huge flows of lavas of various compositions erupted. In the Alpine-Himalayan and Pacific geosynclines, the Yanshan folding was the beginning of the Alpine orogeny. Alpine folding in Asia went in 2 branches, framing from the north and South Paleozoic massifs of Asia Minor. The first branch is a continuation of the Alpides of Western Europe and is represented by the Pontic Mountains.

The second branch (continuation of the Dinarides) is the Taurus Mountains. Both branches joined in the Armenian Highlands, forming the first corner of the clustering of Alpine folds. As a result, the Paleozoic Armenian Highland was broken up by a system of faults, along which lava flowed. At present, this is the largest volcanic plateau in the world, where there are systems of extinct and active volcanoes: Big Ararat, Small Ararat, Aragats, Sahen, Alagez, etc.

From the Armenian highlands, the Alpine folds again follow 2 branches, framing the Iranian highlands. Northern arc: Elburz, Turkmen-Kharasan, Parapamiz, Hindu Kush. Southern arc: Zagros, Mekran, Suleymanovs. Both arcs joined in the Pamirs, forming the 2nd knot of clustering of Alpine folds.

From the Pamirs, the Alpine structures are directed to the east, forming two arcs that passed along the northern and southern outskirts of the Himalayas and joined in the Sino-Tibetan mountains - the third cluster of Alpine folds.

From the Sino-Tibetan knot, the Alpine folds turn to the south at an angle of 90 0, framing the structures of the Chinese platform from the west, forming: Padkai, Arakan, Pegu-Yoma, Andamandsike and Nicobar Islands, the mountains of the islands of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi. As a result of Alpine folding, a powerful piece of land is attached to the mainland. At the same time, two fragments of Gondwana join in the southwestern and southern parts of the mainland: the Arabian and Hindustan peninsulas. At the point of attachment, foothill troughs are formed: the Mesopotamian, Indo-Gangetic lowlands, the valley of the Irrawaddy River.

Alpine folding has affected the adjacent parts of Central Asia. Already existing mountain systems were again crumpled into folds and thrown up to great heights (up to 7,500 m). These mountain building processes have no equal in the world. Were raised: Kunlun, Altyntag, Khangai, Nanshan, Alashan, Tien Shan, Mongolian Altai, Khentei. Thanks to these processes, Central Asia became a separate sub-continent, representing vast territories devoid of external flow and characterized by a sharply continental arid climate.

In the east of the mainland at this time, the largest tectonic changes take place. The Chinese platform is splitting and its eastern periphery is sinking below sea level. Outer seas are formed, framed by arcs of volcanic islands.

Thus, the eastern sector of the mainland is losing land. A specific coastal boundary is being formed, which still exists.

At the end of the Neogene, the outlines of the mainland and its main orographic elements acquire modern contours. From the point of view of the theory of plate tectonics, neotectonic processes in Eurasia develop in the following directions: The Eurasian plate comes into contact with three lithospheric plates: African, Indian and Pacific. The most difficult situation is observed in the subduction zone between the Eurasian and African plates. Here, at the forefront, there are small lithospheric plates that come into contact with each other and complicate the tectonic setting of the region. Asia Minor, Iranian, Arabian plates as a result of interaction contribute to the extrusion of "young mountain chains". These processes are accompanied by seismism and volcanism. In general, Western and Southwestern Asia is currently an active region in tectonic terms. The spreading zone is also located here - the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, (because Arabia is moving away from the African plate). In the south, the Eurasian plate interacts with the Indian one. The latter "leaks" under the first. The place of deepening of the Indian plate is the Indo-Gangetic lowland, and the meeting point of the two plates is the Himalayas.

In the east, the Eurasian plate meets the Pacific plate "leaking" onto the latter. The place of deepening of the Pacific Plate is deep-sea trenches; the meeting point of two plates is an arc of volcanic islands, where tectonic processes are still very active today. The situation here is complicated by the presence of a small oceanic Philippine plate, due to which the nature of the topography of the ocean floor is very diverse.

On the territory of Eurasia, there are areas where the oceanic crust is laid - the Baikal graben (Lake Baikal - northern Mongolia - Khubsugul). Tectonic processes are also active here.

The formation of alpine structures on the territory of Foreign Asia contributed to a change in climatic conditions. The northern part of the mainland experienced glaciation as a result. In foreign Asia, there was no glaciation sheet. Until recently, it was believed that it was in Tibet. However, now it is argued that there were only local, local glaciers. But large areas were occupied by mountain glaciation. The height of the snow boundary in the Pleistocene is 2.5 km higher than the modern one. Ground glaciation (permafrost) was widespread in the northern part of Foreign Asia, which has survived to this day in patches in northern Mongolia and northeastern China. During the glaciation, the modern desert regions of Asia (Central Asia, Arabia, the Iranian Highlands) were characterized by a more humid and mild climate than now. These wet periods are called pluvial. At this time, the river network was laid, underground waters were laid, vegetation flourished luxuriantly. The retreat of the glaciers was accompanied by a drying up of the climate. At present, the former rivers have dried up, and dry river valleys - saury (Central Asia, wadi (Arabia)) have been preserved in the relief.

It just so happens purely historically that the continent is located on the same common continent with such a part of the globe as Europe. Based on this, some part of the territory of the countries located on the Eurasian continent, partly geographically belong to Asia, and partly to the same Europe. In particular, such states as Kazakhstan, Turkey and Russia “suffer” from this kind of duality. So, if you are planning to travel to these countries, then you can get a unique opportunity to visit two parts of the world at once, Europe and Asia.

At the same time, it should be noted that in Asia there are states that have the largest population on the planet today. Namely, this is India and China, on the territory of which more than one billion people live. And besides this, these same countries have the most ancient thousand-year culture. So, any trip to these Asian countries will give you the opportunity to see firsthand not only their modern achievements, but also their ancient culture.

Asian countries

Planning your trip to Asian countries, in without fail it is worth remembering that many of them differ quite significantly in their national traditions and religious preferences from what we are used to in the European part of this continent. In particular, almost all Asian countries are mostly Muslim countries, which implies rather strict rules of behavior in society, and this especially applies to the female half of those traveling to these Asian countries.

Parts of the world of Asia

Today, after a series of parade of sovereignties, which took place mainly in the first half of the last century, the countries of Asia have forty-ten independent states that are located on this territory. This figure, however, does not include the five states primarily located in Western Asia, which today are not legally recognized states by the world community. So that all these countries located on one or another parts of the world asia have a rather complicated history.

In particular, this applies to such states as the Republic of Abkhazia, the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh and South Ossetia, which were formed as a result of the annexation of certain territories of other independent countries, such as Georgia and Azerbaijan. In addition, two more unrecognized states are located in Central Asia. In particular, this is the Republic of Cyprus, which, as a result of the civil war, was divided into two territorial entities with relatively independent jurisdiction and a territory that is part of the sovereign territory of Turkey.

And almost the same situation in East Asia, where for more than seventy years there has been such a state as the Republic of China, which is often called Taiwan. And although, over the past seventy years, the dispute over the ownership of this island state by China has not found a legal solution, the Republic of China, as an independent state.

It should be noted that, despite the fact that Central Asia in this regard looks more or less prosperous, but in this part of the Eurasian continent there are hidden territorial disputes and claims that do not have such a pronounced opposition of certain states. .

Asia map

According to the existing statistics of travel agencies and operators of this market, almost two-thirds of travelers in Asia prefer to make their trips to those countries that have a developed tourism infrastructure. Which, at a minimum, implies, in addition to comfortable hotels and a developed transport service, the presence of a fairly wide range of entertainment and attractions. However, a small traveler has slightly different preferences, namely, traveling along extreme routes that run not only in the mountains of this part of the Eurasian continent, but also in such parts of it as the Gobi desert. And here without detailed asia maps you just can't do it, even if you have the most modern navigator.

Asia tour

A significant difference between modern travelers in Asia is the fact that in the middle of the same past century, it was rather problematic to get to almost any point in this part of the Eurasian continent, because in those years, the same civil aviation and rail transport were not so developed. But today any Asia tour is publicly available and depends solely on your desire and financial capabilities.

History of Asia

Based on existing historical documents, confirmed by archaeological finds Asian history, has a rather exceptional significance for all modern mankind, because according to one of the scientific versions, the spread of primitive man throughout the planet began precisely from the Asian part of our Planet. And although this is a somewhat controversial theory, but in any case, taking a trip to such historical sites in China or India will give any admirer of history the most unforgettable experience.

Asia News

And if you are really planning on your next tariff vacation to take a trip to the countries of Asia, then it will not be out of place to take an interest in the latest events in this part of the Eurasian continent and in this regard, the latest Asia news. Which today can be gleaned not only from printed publications, but also from the Internet. Which, in turn, will at least give you the opportunity not to get into an unfavorable situation for a carefree pastime, at least in terms of the weather.

Briefly about the history of Central Asia.

According to the latest scientific research, man appeared on the territory of Central Asia about half a million years ago. And it was from here that people settled Siberia, Europe and America. There is a widespread hypothesis that it is the northwestern part of Central Asia and the Southern Urals that are the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans (Aryans).

ancient era

In the middle of the 5th millennium BC. e. during the so-called. During the Neolithic Revolution, some tribes switched to a settled way of life and began to engage in agriculture and cattle breeding, and the domestication of the horse began. In the III millennium BC. e. locals learned to use chariots. The first city-states appeared in the fertile regions. The Bactrian-Margian civilization, discovered by archaeologists, is considered the oldest in Central Asia. It had its own written language and used irrigated agriculture. Later, the steppe regions were inhabited by tribes of Turks, Scythians and Mongols. Ethnic differences were leveled by the way of life of nomads common to all steppe peoples.
In I millennium BC. e. the southern regions of Central Asia up to the mouth of the Syr Darya became part of the Persian state of the Achaemenids, which in the III century. BC e. was conquered by Alexander the Great. After his death, the state disintegrated, forming a number of so-called. Hellenistic states, in which there was a significant element of ancient Greek culture. By that time, Buddhism had also spread in the region, and later separate currents of Christianity, in particular Nestorianism.
From 209 BC to 93 AD, the power of the nomadic Huns existed on the territory of Central Asia. In the IV century. The Huns, pressed by the Chinese, invaded Europe, which provoked the Great Migration of Peoples, which eventually led to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. After the success in the wars with the Huns, the Chinese states sought to expand into the territory of Central Asia, but they failed due to the stubborn opposition of the Turks, who were the dominant ethnic group in the region in the middle of the first millennium.
The so-called. The Great Silk Road, which until the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries for many centuries remained the only way of communication between the countries of Europe and Far East.

Middle Ages

In the VIII-IX centuries. there was a stubborn struggle between the Tibetan state and the Chinese Tang empire. The conflict between them also seized certain regions of Central Asia. This war ended in 821.
In the 8th century The spread of Islam began in the region. Gradually, a significant part of it fell into the sphere of influence of the Arab Caliphate. But popular uprisings broke out repeatedly against Arab rule. Finally, the Arabs managed to establish their dominance only in 738, thanks to civil strife in the Turkic Khaganate. By the X century. Central Asia was divided by the Seljuk Turks, the Persian Sassanid dynasty and Khorezm.
At the beginning of the XIII century. after the unification of the Mongols under the rule of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire began to take shape, which became the largest in terms of territory in history. The success of the Mongol conquests was facilitated by cavalry recruited from hardy nomads, siege weapons borrowed from the Chinese, and the iron military discipline established by Genghis Khan. At first, the Mongol conquests led to a serious economic decline in the conquered countries, many cities were destroyed, and trade was stopped. But much was gradually restored, and trading in the vast Mongol Empire became easier and safer. Trade flourished until the empire began to disintegrate, and military conflicts resumed on its territory.
In the XIV century, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, having made a number of successful campaigns of conquest, created a large and powerful state with its capital in Samarkand. After his death, the state disintegrated, four khanates of Kokand, Bukhara, Khiva and Kashgar were formed on the territory of Central Asia.
By the XIV century. the conquests of the Ottoman Turks began to interfere with the access of Europeans to the Great Silk Road. The political disunity of the Central Asian region also prevented from benefiting from trade along it. And after the opening of the sea route to India by the Portuguese, the Silk Road completely lost its former significance.
By that time, firearms had become widely used in military affairs, which allowed settled peoples to defeat nomads in battles, who were not able to produce these weapons on a comparable scale. And since the XV century. control over Central Asia began to pass to the settled peoples. The last nomadic power in the region was the Dzungar kingdom, finally conquered by the Chinese in the 18th century. during the Qing Dynasty. The Khanate of Kokand also paid tribute to the Chinese. A significant part of Central Asia under Nadir Shah was captured by Persia.

Big game

After the death of Nadir Shah, the region became an arena of rivalry between Russia and Great Britain, which by that time had turned the Hindustan peninsula into its huge colony. The rivalry between Russia and Britain for control and influence in Asia has been called the Great Game.
The first stage of large-scale Russian expansion, which was greatly facilitated by the construction of Orenburg, was the annexation of the Kazakh zhuzes. By the beginning of the XIX century. Russian military incursions became more intense, and the local peoples could not successfully resist them because of the backwardness in armament and organization of military affairs. In 1865, after Russia conquered a significant part of Central Asia, an administrative entity was created with a center in Tashkent - the Turkestan Governor General. Afghanistan became a buffer between the possessions of Russia and British India. In 1887, London and St. Petersburg agreed on its northern border.
The emir of Bukhara, the khans of Khiva and Kokand recognized their vassal dependence on Russia.
In the 60s. 19th century Due to the American Civil War, cotton prices rose significantly. And then this crop began to be grown in large volumes in Central Asia. The economy of the region under Russian rule developed successfully. The Tashkent and Transcaspian railways were built. And during World War I, the design of the Turkestan-Siberian railway began, which was built already in the Soviet period in the 30s. XX century. After the revolution of 1917, Soviet republics were formed on the territory of Central Asia under the rule of the communists. At the same time, in the southern territories of Central Asia, a civil war in the form of a so-called. The Basmachi movement lasted longer than in the rest of the country, until the 30s. The administrative boundaries of the Central Asian Soviet republics changed several times, and as a result, the Kazakh, Turkmen, Uzbek, Tajik and Kirghiz republics were formed.
During the years of Soviet power, a lot of work was done to systematize the languages ​​of local peoples. The Arabic alphabet in them in the 20s. was replaced by the Latin alphabet, and in the 30s. to Cyrillic.
During the years of the Great Patriotic War several million refugees and hundreds of industrial enterprises were evacuated to Central Asia. This contributed to the significant development of the region's economy. In addition, many peoples of the USSR were deported here, in particular Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingush, Meskhetian Turks, etc. In the early 50s, in an effort to increase food production, the USSR leadership decided to develop virgin and fallow lands. During the implementation of this decision, about 300 thousand people moved to Kazakhstan from the Central part of the USSR, a significant part of the migrants moved from Ukraine.
In 1955, the construction of the Baikonur cosmodrome began in Kazakhstan.
One of the most important events of the era of Perestroika, which began after M. S. Gorbachev came to power in the USSR, was the so-called. "Uzbek case", when the USSR Prosecutor's Office revealed numerous cases of large-scale corruption in Uzbekistan. At the end of the 80s. there were major ethnic unrest in the Ferghana Valley. After the collapse of the USSR was finalized in December 1991, all the republics of Central Asia gained political independence and joined the CIS. At the same time, on greater territory the region has achieved peace and stability. But many representatives of the Russian-speaking population were subsequently forced to leave, and a large-scale civil war broke out on the territory of Tajikistan in 1992, which was complicated by the problem of drug trafficking from the territory of neighboring Afghanistan.
In 2005, the so-called. Tulip revolution in Kyrgyzstan, which led to the expulsion of its President Okaev from the country.
To date, a significant part of the population of many Central Asian republics, especially Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, is forced to become labor migrants and leave to work in Russia. The economic situation in Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan in comparison with them is somewhat better, thanks to the development of natural gas and other raw materials.
The capital of Kazakhstan at the beginning of the XXI century. was moved from Alma-Ata to Astana (Tselinograd). By architectural appearance it has become one of the most modern cities in the world.